Chapter 26: Entering a New Era 1992-"Present"

Entering a New Era 1992-"Present"

            After twelve years of Republican Rule in the White House, Democrat Bill Clinton ended the Republican period. In 1996, Clinton became the first Democratic President since Franklin D. Roosevelt to won a second term. In the 1990's, with the end of the Cold War abroad and a rapidly changing cultural climate at home, President Clinton and the American people would need to find creative solutions to many complex problems. American voters, concerned with an ailing economy, elected Democrat Bill Clinton to the presidency in 1992. Congress approved Clinton's first budget, but rejected his plan to reform the health-care system. Also the end of the Cold War in the 1990's left Clinton administration struggling to find its way through uncharted water in international relations, new problems would arise since the fall of communism. By the 1990's immigration and aging population had changed the makeup of the US. Minority groups comprised a much larger percentage of the population than ever before and older Americans made up the fastest-growing age group in the country.

Bill Clinton and John F. Kennedy

            At the age of 17, Bill Clinton shook hands with President Kennedy. A hard working student from the small town of Hope, Arkansas, Clinton was chosen to participate in Boys Nation, a summer program in which high school students learn about politics. During Clinton's campaign of 1992, it was a three-way race. Like the 1912 campaign, but now in 1992 we find Bill Clinton who was 46 at the time, Senator Al Gore of Tennessee who was in his forties also, and the third candidate H. Ross Perot, a billionaire businessman from Texas who had made a fortune in computer data processing. Although Clinton won the elections, he did have trouble in his administration when his health-care plan was not passed; this was a sign of coming political trouble. During the campaign Newt Gingrich, a representative from Georgia, called on republican candidate to endorse a "Contract with America" to scale back the role of the federal government, eliminate bothersome regulations, reduce taxes, and balance the budget.

            Witnessing the collapse of communism in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, President Bush had spoken hopefully of the dawn of a "New World Order." By this, he meant a more stable and peaceful world in which "the strong respect the rights of the weak." At this time period the US worked on spreading democracy over Europe, specially the former Soviet Republic. It applauded the election of Boris Yeltsin as president of Russia, and President Clinton supported Russia steps towards democracy. During the Clinton administration, there we other conflicts in other parts of the world, for example South Africa and its social problems to overturn apartheid-the systematic separation of the black and white races. Since only 15% of the population was white and did not accept to give equal rights to the majority the US and other nations had used economic sanctions-trade restrictions-to encourage reform. Although the US found it fascinating to help the Soviet Union become democratic, other countries such as Bosnia had social conflicts and political divisions in their own country. Also during Clinton's administration, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), a landmark agreement that to effect in 1994, a called for removal of trade restrictions among the US, Mexico, and Canada. During the 1990's a great deal of immigration occurred, the culture of the US was being enriched by new people coming in from different cultures, therefore, another efforts to help make diversity wok was multiculturalism, a movement that called for greater attention to non-European cultures in such areas as education. Also during the Clinton presidency a new revolution was to occur and it was the Internet, which is a computer virtual network which allows people to connect around the world.

Boris Yeltsin & Bill Clinton

            As a result of an era of the Clinton administration the US has become one of the greatest World Powers. With all its ups and downs, it has been the mother of democracy and its spreading all over the world. The 90's decade gave birth too many positive results of the 21st century nowadays. The power of several of Clinton’s policies, such as the Health-care (which was not approved by Congress) now is being implemented in the Obama administration. The present America is a result of the 90's and the end of the Cold War. Also one of the biggest revolutionary parts of the 90's was the Internet, which has made our modern world what it is.

Chapter 24: The Post-Watergate Period 1974-1980

The Post-Watergate Period 1974-1980

            Even after the Nixon presidency, the American society felt a great they could no longer trust the President. People wondered whether any President could heal the rifts that destroyed the peace of the country apart. Even after President Gerald Ford tried to receive the confidence that had sustained the United States through past troubles. Yet, after two years in office democrat Jimmy Carter won the presidency. Gerald Ford faced difficulties with the presidency he inherited. Although he wanted to help the nation recover from the Watergate affair, he never managed to step forward as a strong leader to deal effectively with problems that dodged the economy. Although time had passed after the Watergate scandal, people continued to influence greatly on the voting for a president based on that even, therefore in 1976 people chose the democrat candidate Jimmy Carter. Also President Jimmy Carter was influenced in his foreign policy in which he emphasize peacemaking  and human rights, his religious beliefs also influenced his decision not to run again for president. During Presidents Jimmy Carter’s presidency he had trouble passing reforms in his energy program which would stabilize the economy.

            The new President, Gerald R. Ford, was a decent man who faced a difficult job. He had to help the US emerge from its worst political scandal at a time when the economy was in trouble and the war in Vietnam was being lost. Also Gerald Ford was not a vice president whom was not elected, so due to the circumstances he also named Nelson Rockefeller – Governor of New York- as his vice president once he was in power, this was something new to the country. During Ford’s administration Nixon had left a country with a troubling economy, so inflation and unemployment rose, therefore the economy was in a state of stalled and stagnant, this became known by economist as stagflation. Nevertheless Ford’s administration was not all that negative, he continued with the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) and signed the Helsinki Accords in which a series of agreements with thirty five nations including the USSR in which they would promote human rights movements.

President Gerald Ford and Vice-President Nelson Rockefeller

            In reaction against the Watergate scandal and economic woes, voters elected a Democrat, Jimmy Carter, as President in 1976. James Earl Carter, Jr., a businessman and former naval officer who had been governor of Georgia, promised to bring a fresh approach to the White House. At first Carter enjoyed his status as a "Washington outsider," but in time that position lessened his ability to lead effectively. Also Jimmy Carter to make the American public feel that the president was with them decided to walk with his family to the White House. President Carter achieved his greatest successes in foreign policy. Some of Carters successes were his involvement with Israel and the Arab Nations in which Henry Kissinger used shuttle diplomacy, moving back and forth between nations in and am attempt to arrange peace in the region, but conflicts continued. Anwar el-Sadat made a historic visit to Israel to negotiate with Prime Minister Menachem Begin. This made President Carter intervene by sending Secretary of State Cyrus Vance to invite them to Camp David to find a solution for their affairs. This resulted in the Camp David Accords in which would make Israel take their troops from Sinai Peninsula, and Egypt would recognize Israel's Existence as a nation. Yet President Carter faced the worst foreign policy crisis which occurred in Iran. The US supported Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, but was later overthrown by Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini. The conflict went as far as having Iranian students overtake the Tehran embassy and took sixty-six American Hostages.

President Jimmy Carter 

            While Jimmy Carter had several triumphs in foreign affairs, he had little success in programs at home. He had a hard time working with Congress and its leaders to work on his energy and economic policies. One of the 70's energy projects were the nuclear energy, yet many people were concerned with such use of nuclear power and it became demonstrated its failure in the Three Mile Island, near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Due to this president Carter proposed a reorganization in the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the agency in charge of nuclear power, and called on utility companies to improve standards. Another of Carter's actions was the deregulation, or reducing or removing government controls, in several industries. Another of Carter's actions was the amnesty-a general pardon- to those who had evaded the draft during the Vietnam War.

            The Carter administration and Post-Watergate scandal were hard times for the American People. From a president who lied, a new president who never was elected, and a successful foreign policy maker president who did not achieve much in his own country. The US was passing difficult times and the nation was like a boat without a captain and a course. Nevertheless, Nixon, Ford, and Carter all had their positive roll during their presidency. Nevertheless, Carter was the one out of those three who played the best role as the President of the United States of America.

Chapter 22: The Vietnam War and American Society 1960-1975

The Vietnam War and American Society 1960-1975

             During the commencement of the Cold War, the Vietnam War has been one of the most tragic events. United States Presidents from Eisenhower to Nixon spent tremendous amount of money on such war, also sending half a million soldiers to Vietnam. Over the course of that war, several Americans question if that war was correct to be fought, in comparison to WWII. Presidents Kennedy and Johnson determined to defeat Ho Chi Minh’s communist forces supported dictatorships of Ngo Dinh Diem who had great support from the United States, and also the USA sent thousands of American soldiers to fight and die in Vietnam. Such war was incredibly importance, since it was the first to be televised, therefore people knew of the brutality of what was going on. Also, this was a time when the hippie’s movements  of men and women who self-consciously rejected conventional norms, and student movements were occurring, but the Vietnam War took the great part of the public’s attention. The 60’s decade also had a cultural and ideology revolution that gave liberty to the baby boomer, but it filled others with fear and disgust. The antiwar movement finally convinced politicians in Washington that it was time to pull out of Vietnam, yet it happened slowly and the war was far from over.

            By the mid-twentieth century, Vietnam had a history of nationalism that extended back nearly 2,000 years. After WWII Ho Chi Minh continued the nationalist movement in his country, but the US saw him as a communist. Yet the war intensified during the Johnson years with the Viet Cong, a guerrilla in South Vietnam supported by the Northern Vietnamese and Ho Chi Minh. The war became more intense during the LBJ campaign; he cleverly secured congressional authorization for deepening American involvement in Vietnam. The Congress then passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution in which the President had nearly complete control over what the US did in Vietnam, without having Congress ever officially declaring war. After LBJ’s reelection there was an escalation in the militia going to the Vietnam War. During January the 30^th of 1968, the Tet Offensive occurred in which the Viet Cog attack numerous cities, including Saigon, the South Vietnamese capital.

Viet Cong

            The Vietnam War was a long, brutal struggle. American soldiers were fighting a guerrilla war against a hidden enemy, therefore friendly fire occurred often. Yet one of the things that shock the most the American public was the My Lai Massacre. In March 1968 the US soldiers were sent to the My Lai village South Vietnam, supposedly hosting 250 members of the Vietcong. But the village was filled with only women, children and old people. The soldiers went crazy and ended up murdering innocent people. The American public now had had enough. In June 1971, the New York Times published secret documents from the pentagon in which LBJ had lied to Congress. This left the American public in shock. Civil right movements started occurring, so the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) in 1960 developed. At the beginning it did not have much power, but at the end it created great impact in politics, forming what was known as the New Left. Members of the New Left believed that radical changes were the only way to solve problems such as poverty and racism in the US. Several students found it outrageous to go to war with Vietnam, so they started the teach-in. The first one was in the University of Michigan in March 1965. Faculty members protested against the war, the university threatened to fire them. So 50-60 professors decided to teach about a special night session in which issues concerning the war could be aired. Such meeting had massive success all over the country as it spread. Another movement was the conscientious objectors in which people who did not support the war and the military service opposed fighting in the war on moral grounds.

Woodstock

            In the 1960’s several Americans began to look for alternatives to traditional patterns of living. The young were some of the most involved; this was known as the counterculture. They experimented with the way they dressed, sexual relationships, and also drug usage, several members of this time period were involved in politics, most weren’t. Another great part of the 60’s counterculture were psychedelic drugs, which are drugs that cause the brain to behave abnormally (yet not addictive as Narcotics), such drugs were Marijuana, LDS, Magic Mushrooms, Hashish, Speed (various amphetamines), and others. This was a time also of a musical revolution, groups such as The Beatles, The Doors, Strawberry Alarm Clock, and others formed during this time. A great musical event that occurred during this time was Woodstock, known for its motto of “3 days of Music and peace”.

Hippie's

            The antiwar movements created serious opposition to American involvement in Vietnam. One of the great stars of this time of the Vietnam War was President Nixon, who said he had a secret plan to end the war. This was known latter as the Vietnamization, which involved removing American forces and replacing them with South Vietnamese soldiers. Yet peace was not easy to balance since President Nixon’s invasion of Cambodia in 1970 reignited the protest movement on college campuses in the US. At Kent State University, students reacted angrily to the President’s actions. It was hard for the US government to maintain peace and balance with its citizens.

            In conclusion, the 1960-1975 were years which marked deeply the modern American society. From the Vietnam War after effects due to its negative impact, and biological weapons usage. Also its cultural revolution by the young in the struggle to change what had already been established by previous generations. The war in Vietnam was one of America’s greatest mistakes due to the social impact it had on its society and the protest that happened at home due to the rejection the American public. Such rejection formed the counterculture and gave birth to the Hippie’s which spread a new culture of liberty and freely sexual relationships with great usage of drugs amongst the young people. Nevertheless it was something that had to happen to form the modern American society know to everyone nowadays. 

Chapter: 18 The Postwar Years at Home 1945-1960

The Postwar Years at Home 1945-1960

            During World War II the Americans had always dreamed of peace and prosperity, especially after The Great Depression and WWII. After the war, they expected to enjoy the benefit of their new standing as military and economic superpower. The America Dream- a home in the suburbs which were developed by people such as William J. Levitt, a car in the garage and a family became real to most Americans. After WWII many Americans were blessed with wealth, success and leisure. Conformity seemed the order of the day, although some groups made it their business to avoid the popularity accepted lifestyles of the 1950s. The postwar period created many challenges for American leaders, including the conversion back to a peacetime economy and the debate over the proper role of government in the nation’s economic and social affairs. The events of WWII, including the fight against fascism abroad and the African American migration at home, gave a new life into the civil rights movement. The action of many courageous Americans brought significant results in the postwar years.

            When American soldiers returned from the battle fields, they wanted nothing more than to out the horrors of the war behind them and enjoy the comforts of home and family. This was a time when the Gross National Product (GNP) more the doubled from $212 billion in 1945 to $504 billion in 1960, this made the per capita income –the average income per person- increase from $1,526 to $2,788. This gave Americans real purchasing power – what people could actually buy with their money- it grew about 22%. Nevertheless business feared the Depression of investing all their resources in one business, became diversified conglomerates. This means that companies invest in several businesses and if one fails they still have their money in other businesses. Also during this time a new type of business opened, franchises which are business that can be found all over the country with the same quality standards. During this time also a new business in agriculture arose, creating the agribusiness. With some much people working and making a leaving the baby boom continued. Also WWII veterans enjoyed the GI Bill, which gave the low-interest mortgages to purchase their new homes.

Suburbs

            Middle-class Americans were comfortable during the 1950s. Most did not question whether the images of prosperous suburban white families frequently seen on television represented “typical” American experiences. Americans in the post-WWII years were keenly aware of the roles that they were expected to play as men and women. Men were expected to go to school, and then find a job to support wives and children. Women in the 1950s were expected to play a supporting role for their husbands’ lives in the public sphere. People such as the pediatrician Benjamin Spock assured American families that mothers should stay home with their young children; this was another enforcing of society to enforce the stereotype that women should stay at home. Also there were women accepting this point of view, such as Betty Friedan whom published an explosive critique of the 1950s ideal of womanhood. Friedan due to her explosive critiques quite her job to become a full time mother and home.

            In the postwar years, political events reflected the economic and social patterns of the country. At this time also several strikes arose, so congress passed the Taft-Haley Act which allowed the President to declare an 8 day cooling off, and the strikers affecting national interest returned to their factories while the government did negotiations. At this time President Truman did not have much success so the Democrats chose Adlai Stevenson, governor of Illinois, as their presidential candidate. Years after President Eisenhower kept on insisting to cease the Korean War, followed by his vice-president mate, Californian Richard M. Nixon. During this time also the cold war was about to start, and the launch of the Russian satellite Sputnik, made the Americans feel mortified, since they were considered the best scientist at the time.

Russians win the race to space

            Before and during WWII, African Americans were not treated as equals by a large portion of American Society. The social rights movements after WWII started to occur, and not only during the war for African Americans to enlist into the military, but also into sports such as baseball. Jackie Robinson (1919-1972) was the first African American to enter the baseball league. This created great dispute, but he managed to overcome such thing and made a great impact in the Brooklyn Dodgers in his first season. Another case was from Olivia Brown who sued Topeka, Kansas, Board of Education due to the segregation and the case was taken by the African American Thurgood Marshall, who argued about segregation in school and in general. One of the greatest of all social rights movements was Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and his fight for quality.

            The postwar years were a time of great progress for America in several levels of social and economic development. Soldiers came back home, and wanted the old life style back. Also many Americans achieved economic success; the American dream was formed during this time. It was an era in which America would become a world economic power and have great international influence. Also the social movements lead to a more equal society in America; the fight for the cease of segregation became more intense and notorious. Nevertheless dark times were coming, great ideological and political fights would arise, and would create great fear in the American society up to 1989 when the Cold War would come to an end.